Anatomy & Physiology Slides

Slideshow Transcript

1. Slide 1: Nursing Review of Anatomy and Physiology Review for Philippine Nursing Licensure Examination
2. Slide 3: Outline of Selected Topics in Anatomy and Physiology The Cell  Integumentary  Musculoskeletal  Nervous  Endocrine  Cardiovascular and Hematologic  Gastrointestinal  Urinary/Fluids and Electrolytes  Reproductive 
3. Slide 4: The Cell  BasicStructural and Functional Unit of the body
4. Slide 5: Functions of the Cell Basic unit of life 1. Protection and support 2. Movement 3. Communication 4. Cell metabolism and energy release 5. Inheritance 6.
5. Slide 6: The Cell  Composed of the Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, the organelles, the nucleus and the inclusions
6. Slide 8: The Cell The cytoplasm is the viscous,  translucent, watery material where the organelles are located
7. Slide 9: The Cell The Cell membrane is a semi-  permeable membrane that serves as the boundary separating the cellular structures from the external environment
8. Slide 11: The cell membrane  Selectively permeable  Bi-lipid layers  Functions to regulate passage of substances
9. Slide 12: The cell membrane Phagocytosis- cell eating  Pinocytosis- cell drinking  Endocytosis- cell engulfment  Exocytosis- cell excretion 
10. Slide 15: Cell connections Tight junction= binds adjacent cell together and form permeability barrier, which regulates what material crosses Desmosome= mechanical link that functions to bind cell to one another Hemidesmosomes= anchor the cell to the  basement membrane Gap junction= small channel that allows molecules and ions to pass from one another
11. Slide 17: The cellular organelles These are the cellular metabolic  units with specific functions to maintain the life of the cell  These include the mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton and centrosomes
12. Slide 18: The mitochondrion The POWERHOUSE of the cell  Contains enzymes and the complexes  responsible for the production of the ATP Also contains mitochondrial DNA  Metabolic processes occurring in this  organelle include – Kreb’s cycle, beta- oxidation of fats, urea cycle, heme synthesis This organelle is maternally inherited 
13. Slide 20: The endoplasmic reticulum An extensive network of membrane-  enclosed tubules There are two types- Rough and  Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum is  covered with ribosomes site of protein synthesis Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no  ribosome site of lipid synthesis
14. Slide 22: Ribosome Together with the endoplasmic  reticulum is the site of protein synthesis  Maybe found in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria  They may be free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
15. Slide 23: Golgi Apparatus This organelle modifies, concentrates  and packages proteins  This also packages enzymes into lysozomes  Proteins and enzymes usually are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the golgi apparatus
16. Slide 25: The lysosomes These are membrane-limited  digestive bodies that contain enzymes that break down foreign or damaged materials  The enzymes digest all materials brought in by phagocytosis
17. Slide 27: The peroxisomes Similar to lysosomes, these are  membrane-bound sacs containing oxidases (not found in the lysosomes)  Oxidases are enzymes capable of reducing oxygen to hydrogen peroxide
18. Slide 28: The cytoskeleton A series of tubules and rods that  runs through the cytoplasm supporting the cellular structures  This is also responsible for cellular movements
19. Slide 30: The centrosomes  Thiscontains the centrioles short cylinders adjacent to the nucleus responsible for cellular division
20. Slide 31: The cellular inclusions These are non-functional units  made up of chemical substances  These may or may not be present in all cells  Examples are pigments, granules, and fat globules
21. Slide 32: Cilia and Flagella Cilia are short, hair-like extensions  that occur in large numbers on the outer surface of the cell  Flagella are long projections formed by centrioles that propel the cell
22. Slide 34: The Nucleus The central control of the cell  Controls cell growth, metabolisms and  reproduction Contains DNA  Contains chromosomes DNA +  proteins appearing as granules in the non-dividing cell Genes segments of chromosomes 
23. Slide 36: Cell Division Formation of two daughter cell  from a single parent cell. Mitosis – formation of new cell d. necessary for growth and tissue repair. Meosis – formation of sex cell e. necessary for the reproduction.
24. Slide 37: Cellular division Two types- Mitosis and Meiosis  Mitosis- equal division of materials  which yields two exact duplicates of the original cell The diploid number (46) of  chromosomes is maintained All of the body cells undergo mitosis  except the gametes or sex cells
25. Slide 38: Mitosis All body cell undergo mitosis except sex  cell. There are two step in mitosis: Genetic material within the cell is e. replicated. Cell divided to form two daughter with f. same amount and type of DNA.
26. Slide 39: The cellular division Five steps of cellular division I-P-  M-A-T Interphase- inactive or resting  state Prophase-Chromatin coils to form  chromosomes, centrioles begin to assemble Metaphase-chromosomes line the  equator, and they split lengthwise Anaphase-Chromatids separate and  move to the opposite poles Telophase-chromosomes uncoil and  nucleoli reappear
27. Slide 40: INTERPHASE – time between cell division during which DNA replicate. DNA strand separate where old strand joined with new strand of DNA to form two new DNA molecule.
28. Slide 41: Four stage of Mitosis Prophase – chromatin condensed into chromosome. 2. Chromosome consist of two chromatin join by centromere. Centriole move to opposite pole.  Nucleus and nuclear envelope disappear.  2. Metaphase – chromosome aligned at the center, w/ spindle fiber. 3. Anaphase – chromatin separate to form two sets of identified chromosome. Chromosome assisted by spindle fiber.
29. Slide 42: 4. Telophase – chromosome disperse.  Nuclear membrane and nucleolus formed.  Cytoplasm divided into two cell.
30. Slide 43: Differentiation – process by which cell develop with specialized function. Egg and sperm cell formed single cell during  fertilization divided by mitosis to form two cell then become four cell and so forth which differentiate, give rise to different cell. E.g. bone cell, muscle cell
31. Slide 45: The cellular division Meiosis is a reduction division  occurring in the sex cells  Sex cells have only one pair of chromosomes (23)haploid number
32. Slide 46: Cell Physiology
33. Slide 48: DIFFUSION  The movement of SOLUTES or particles in a solution from a higher concentration to a lower concentration  This is a passive process, no energy is required
34. Slide 50: OSMOSIS  The movement of solvent or water from a diluted solution into a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane  The pressure that draws water inside the vessel which is more concentrated is called Osmotic pressure
35. Slide 52: Filtration If a sugar is placed in plain water,  the glucose molecules will dissolve and distribute in the solution  Factors that affect diffusion- concentration gradient, particle size, solubility and temperature
36. Slide 53: Special osmosis A special type of osmotic pressure is exerted by the proteins in the plasma. It is called ONCOTIC PRESSURE
37. Slide 54: FILTRATION  The movement of both solute and solvent by hydrostatic pressure, i.e., from an area of a higher pressure to an area of a lower pressure  An example of this process is urine formation
38. Slide 55: Hydrostatic pressure  Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluid against the container  Increased hydrostatic pressure is one mechanism producing edema
39. Slide 56: Active transport This is the movement of solutes  across a membrane from a lower concentration to a higher concentration with utilization of energy  Example is the Sodium-Potassium pump, Endocytosis and Exocytosis
40. Slide 59: Tissue Group of cells with similar structure and  function There are four (4) Basic types 4. Epithelial 5. Connective 6. Muscle 7. Nervous
41. Slide 60: BODY TISSUES Epithelium  Lining, covering and glandular tissues of the body  The functions are to protect, absorb, filtrate and secrete substances
42. Slide 61: Epithelial tissues  Simple epithelium  Lined by ONE Layer of cell  Stratified epithelium  Lined by many layers of cells
43. Slide 62: Epithelial tissues  Simple epithelia  1. Simple squamos- alveoli, BV  2. Simple cuboidal- glands  3. Simple columnar- GI tract  4. Pseudo stratified epithelium- bronchial lining
44. Slide 63: Epithelial tissues  Stratified epithelium  1. Stratified Squamos- skin  2. Stratified cuboidal- reproductive duct  3. Transitional epithelium- bladder and ureter
45. Slide 67: Connective tissues Bone  Cartilage  Muscle  Blood  Blood vessels  Adipose tissue 
46. Slide 72: The Integumentary System The largest body system  Includes the skin and accessory  structures like the hair, nails, and glands Function: Protection of body  structures and regulation of body temperature
47. Slide 74: The Skin as first line protection The skin seals off the body  from the immediate environment  There are three layers of the skin: Epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
48. Slide 75: Skin cells There are many other cells aside  from the keratinized squamos cells of the skin. Melanocytes produce pigment  melanin. Langerhan’s cells participates in the  immune system. Histiocytes are specialized  macrophages
49. Slide 77: Skin as temperature regulator Abundant nerves, blood  vessels and glands are within the skin’s deeper layer  They aid in temperature regulation  Blood vessels constrict or dilate depending on the temperature
50. Slide 78: Skin functions Sweat glands produce sweat to  control temperature by evaporation The piloerector (arrector pili)  muscles will contract to raise the hairs to trap the heat
51. Slide 79: Other skin functions Vitamin D synthesis  7-dehydrocholesterolCholecalciferol (D3)  Route of excretion   Insensible fluid loss of about 500 ml/day  Sweat contains water, electrolytes, urea and lactic acid
52. Slide 80: Other skin functions Skin and mucus membrane are the  first line defense of the body in immunity Skin has receptors for pain, cold,  pressure and heat.
53. Slide 81: The Skin layers: EPIDERMIS The outermost layer with stratified  squamos epithelium Varies in thickness depending on  the body part Thinnest in the eyelids and thickest  in the soles and palms
54. Slide 82: EPIDERMIS The layers are- C-L-G-S-B  The outermost layer is the stratum  corneum with keratin The stratum basale is the layer  which regenerates/replaces new skin cells Melanocytes in the skin produce  melanin
55. Slide 83: The Skin layers: DERMIS The second layer- cutis vera  Is flexible and elastic  Two layers- papillary and  reticular Contains blood vessels, lymphatic  vessels, nerves and appendages
56. Slide 84: The Skin layers: DERMIS The connective tissues in the  dermis contain collagen (gives its strength)  elastin (gives its flexibility) and  reticular fibers (connect collagen  and elastin)
57. Slide 85: The Skin layers: Hypodermis This is the subcutaneous  tissue  Not strictly a part of the skin  Functions to insulate the body to conserve heat
58. Slide 86: Hypodermis Serves as the energy storage  and mechanical shock absorber  With little vascular supply and scant nerve supply
59. Slide 87: The Skin appendages Hairs- long shafts composed of  keratin. Expanded lower end is called hair bulb or root. There are extensive nerve and blood supply in the hair bulbs Nails-flattened structure of  specialized type of keratinized surface. The visible part is the nail body.
60. Slide 88: Fig. 5.5
61. Slide 89: Appendages Sebaceous glands-glands which  produces an oily material called sebum, found in all body parts except the palms and soles. Sweat glands or sudoriferous  glands- glands which secrete sweat, found in all body parts except in the nipples. Two types exist- Eccrine and Apocrine
62. Slide 90: Fig. 5.6
63. Slide 91: The Musculoskeletal System This system consists of the  muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, cartilage, joints, and bursae
64. Slide 92: The Musculoskeletal System Functions:  • Locomotion and protection • blood production in the bone marrow • heat generation, • maintenance of posture and • storage of minerals
65. Slide 93: The Muscles Three types of muscles exist in our body  Voluntary skeletal muscle  Involuntary cardiac muscle  Involuntary visceral smooth muscle
66. Slide 94: The Muscles Muscles are composed of muscle fibers having numerous nuclei and striations
67. Slide 98: Properties of Muscles Electrical excitability  • Ability to contract to certain stimuli Contractility  • Ability to contract forcefully when stimulated Extensibility  • Ability to stretch without being damaged Elasticity  • Ability to return to its original length and shape
68. Slide 99: Muscle Physiology Muscle fibers are enclosed  sheaths- perimysium, epimysium and endomysium Each muscle cell has actin and  myosin filaments arranged in a sarcomere This sarcomere is the basic  structural unit of the muscle
69. Slide 100: Muscle Physiology Muscle contraction occurs as actin  and myosin slide past one another causing the sarcomeres to shorten Calcium ion is released by the  muscle endoplasmic reticulum to initiate contraction ATP is used both for muscle  contraction and muscle relaxation
70. Slide 103: Fig. 7.5a
71. Slide 104: Fig. 7.6
72. Slide 105: Fig. 7.7a
73. Slide 106: Fig. 7.7b
74. Slide 107: Muscle Physiology Muscle contraction can be of two types  1. ISOMETRIC- iso= same, metric=distance: The length of the muscle does not change, but the tension increases  2. ISOTONIC- iso=same, tonus=tone: The amount of muscle tension is constant but the length of the muscle varies
75. Slide 108: Muscle Physiology Muscle tone= refers to the constant  tension produced by muscles of the body for long periods of time FAST-twitch muscles= contract quickly and fatigue quickly SLOW-twitch muscles=contract slowly and are more resistant to fatigue
76. Slide 109: Muscle Physiology Smooth Muscle= is not striated,  contracts more slowly, is autorhythmic and under involuntary control Cardiac muscle- is striated, is  autorhythmic, and under involuntary control
77. Slide 110: MUSCLE and JOINT MOVEMENTS Flexion- decreasing the angle  between two joints Extension- increasing the angle  between two joints Abduction- movement of the limb  away from the midline Adduction- movement of the limb  towards the midline
78. Slide 111: MUSCLE and JOINT MOVEMENTS Internal rotation- moving the body  part inward towards the midline External rotation- moving the body  part outward away from the midline Supination- turning a body part  upward Pronation- turning a body part  downward
79. Slide 112: MUSCLE and JOINT MOVEMENTS Inversion- turning the foot inward  Eversion- turning the foot  outward Retraction- moving a body part  backward Protraction- moving a body aprt  forward
80. Slide 113: Muscles of the face 1. Frontalis   2. Orbicularis oculi  3. orbicularis oris  4. Buccinator  5. Zygomaticus Facial Nerve innervation 
81. Slide 114: Muscles of Mastication 1. Masseter  2. Temporalis   3. Pterygoid muscles Innervated by TRIGEMINAL  NERVE
82. Slide 115: Muscles of the neck 1. Platysma  2. Sternocleidomastoid 
83. Slide 116: Muscle of the upper limb 1. Biceps  2. triceps  3. deltoid 
84. Slide 117: Muscles of the lower limb 1. Hamstring muscles  2. Quadriceps  3. Gluteal muscles  4. calf muscles 
85. Slide 118: TENDONS These are bands of fibrous  connective tissue that attach muscles to bones
86. Slide 119: LIGAMENTS These are dense, strong, flexible  bands of fibrous connective tissue that bind bones to other bones
87. Slide 120: BONES Bone is a living growing tissue  made of porous mineralized structure. The human skeleton contains 206  bones Axial bones are bones on the  midline like the vertebrae, skull, facial bones, ribs and sternum Appendicular bones include the  scapulae, bones of the arms and legs
88. Slide 122: Classification of Bones Long bones- - These bones have a  shaft and ends. Ex: tibia, humerus, femur Short bones- Small and cubical  shaped- Ex: carpals and tarsals Irregular bones- vertebrae, mandible  Sesamoid bones- bones embedded in  the tendons. Ex:patella Flat bones- with spongy bones  inside. Ex: scapulae, ribs, clavicle
89. Slide 123: Structure of the bone Long bones have a diaphysis  ( shaft) and epiphysis (ends)  Bones consist of layers of calcified matrix occupied by bone cells.  The outer layer of bone is composed of dense compact bone (cortical bone)  The inner layer is composed of spongy cancellous bones
90. Slide 125: Bone Structure Blood supply of bones reaches by  way of arterioles in the haversian canal, through the vessels in the Volkmann's canal Bone formation can be from the  cartilage and from the membrane
91. Slide 126: Bone Structure OSTEOBLAST- bone cell responsible  for bone formation and calcification OSTEOCLAST- bone cell responsible  for bone resorption and destruction
92. Slide 127: Bone Ossification Ossification is the formation of  bone by the osteoblasts. This involves the mineralization of bones from a cartilage (endochondral) and from a membrane (membranous).
93. Slide 128: Fig. 6.5a
94. Slide 129: Fig. 6.6
95. Slide 130: Bone Remodeling Bone remodeling involves the  removal of old bones by cells called osteoclasts and deposition of new bones by the osteoblasts. Bone is the major storage of  calcium If calcium levels in the blood falls,  it is removed from the bone
96. Slide 131: Bone repair When a bone is broken, blood  vessels are also damaged clot 2-3 days after injury, blood vessels  and cells invade the blood clot callus formation Osteoblasts enter the callus and  begin to form a spongy bone Immobilization of the bone is  required because the delicate new matrix of bone is easily damaged by excessive movement
97. Slide 132: Fig. 6.8
98. Slide 133: The Skull Skeleton of the head  Made of 21 bones  Cranial bones  • Frontal • Parietal • Temporal • occipital
99. Slide 134: The Skull Facial bones  • Maxilla • Mandible • Zygoma • Nasal • Vomer • Palatine
100. Slide 135: The paranasal sinuses These are air-filled cavities in the  facial bones surrounding the nose and open into the nasal cavity They decrease the weight of the  skull and act as resonator of sounds Frontal, maxillary, ethmoid and  sphenoid
101. Slide 137: The Vertebrae Composed of 32-33 bones  7 cervical  12 thoracic  5 lumbar  5 sacral  3-4 coccygeal 
102. Slide 138: Functions of the vertebrae 1. Supports the weight of the  head and trunk 2. Protects the spinal cord  3. Allows spinal nerves to exit the  spinal cord 4. Provides a site for muscle  attachment 5. Permits the movement of the  head and trunk
103. Slide 139: The Cervical Vertebrae 7 in number   C1- atlas  C2- axis  C7- cervical prominence  Atlas and occipital bone= “yes” motion  Atlas and Axis= “no” motion
104. Slide 140: The Thorax Made up of the sternum and ribs  The sternum has 3 parts  • Manubrium • Body • Xiphoid process • The slight elevation in the sternum is called the Sternal Angle of Louis. It identifies the location of the second rib
105. Slide 141: The Ribs The ribs are 12 pairs  • True ribs= 1-7 • False ribs= 8-10 • Floating ribs=11-12
106. Slide 143: The shoulder The clavicle and scapulae constitute  the shoulder The clavicle  • Articulates with the sternum • Most commonly fracture bone The Scapulae  • Attached to the ribs and vertebrae by muscles only • Has an acromion process, where the clavicle attaches
107. Slide 145: The Upper extremity Composed of the following bones  Humerus  Ulna  Radius  Carpals (wrist bones)  Metacarpals  Phalanges 
108. Slide 147: The pelvic girdle Composed of  the 3 fused bones- pubis, ilium and ischium Constitute the  hip bone
109. Slide 148: The pelvic girdle Female pelvis has the following  structure: The pelvic inlet is large/oval, symphysis is shallow. obturator foramen is oval or triangular, sacrum is broader The male pelvis has the following:  The pelvic inlet is small/round to heart-shape, symphysis is deep. Obturator foramen is round
110. Slide 149: Fig. 6.32
111. Slide 152: The Lower extremity bones Composed of the  Thigh bones- femur  The leg bones- Tibia and Fibula  The ankle- tarsal bones  The foot- metatarsal bones
112. Slide 154: CARTILAGE A dense connective tissue that  consists of fibers embedded in a strong, gel-like substance. Cartilage supports and shapes  various structures such as the ear pinna, intervertebral disks, ear canal, larynx, etc. It serves as cushion and shock  absorber
113. Slide 156: Types of Cartilage Fibrous cartilage  • Found in the intervertebral disks Hyaline cartilage  • Found in the symphisis, the thyroid cartilage Elastic cartilage  • Found in the ears, the epiglottis
114. Slide 158: Fig. 6.39a
115. Slide 159: Fig. 6.39b
116. Slide 160: Fig. 6.40a
117. Slide 161: Fig. 6.40b
118. Slide 162: Fig. 6.40c
119. Slide 163: Joints These are point of attachment or  contact between two bones Variously classified according to its  movement and flexibility Fibrous joints- with fibrous tissue  with little or no movement Cartilaginous joints- with cartilage  Synovial joints- with capsule;  freely movable joints
120. Slide 165: Synovial joints Freely movable joints   With joint cavity/capsule  Articular surface  Synovial membrane  Synovial fluid
121. Slide 166: Synovial joints Plane joint- intercarpal joint  of wrist  Hinge joint- elbow and ankle  Pivot- atlas and axis  Condyloid- “egg-shape” metacarpophalengeal joint
122. Slide 167: Synovial joints Saddle joint- joint of the  thumb  Ball and socket- hip joint
123. Slide 168: Bursae Small synovial fluid sacs  located at friction points around joints, between tendons, ligaments and bones  Act as cushions, decrease stress on adjacent structure
124. Slide 171: The Nervous System • The nervous system coordinates all body functions, enabling a person to adapt to changes in internal and external environment • The nervous system is composed mainly of the nerve cells (neurons) and supporting cells (neuroglia)
125. Slide 172: The neuron • This is the basic conducting cell of the nervous system • Highly specialized but cannot reproduce itself • Main parts are the cell body (soma), the fibers: axon and dendrites.
126. Slide 173: The neuron • The axon is a long process with myelin sheath. This conducts impulses away from the cell body • The dendrites are short, thick, diffuse branching processes that receive impulses and conduct them towards the cell body
127. Slide 175: The neuroglia • The supporting cells • They supply nutrients to the neurons and help maintain the electrical potential • They also form part of the blood- brain barrier
128. Slide 176: The neuroglia • Oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheath in the CN • Schwann cells produce myelin sheath in the peripheral NS
129. Slide 180: The Organization of the Nervous System • The nervous system is divided functionally and structurally into 2 parts • 1. Central Nervous System- the Brain and the spinal cord • 2. Peripheral Nervous System- the cranial nerves and spinal nerves
130. Slide 183: The Organization of the nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System is further classified into THREE Functional Divisions 1. The Somatic Nervous System- controls the skeletal muscles 2. The Autonomic Nervous System- controls the visceral organs 3. The Enteric Nervous System- controls the functions of the GIT
131. Slide 184: The Central Nervous System Composed of the brain • The brain consists of the gross structures: cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem and the diencephalon. • Diencephalon- Thalamus. Hypothalamus and pineal body • Brainstem- Pons, medulla and Midbrain
132. Slide 186: Fig. 8.23
133. Slide 187: The Cerebrum • This is the largest part of the brain • Consists of right and left hemisphere connected by the corpus callosum • Each cerebral hemisphere is composed of different lobes- frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital • Embedded in the cerebrum is the BASAL ganglia
134. Slide 189: The Frontal Lobe of the cerebrum • Influences the personality of the person • Also responsible for judgment, abstract reasoning, social behavior, language expression and motor movement.
135. Slide 190: The Temporal lobe of the Cerebrum • This part of the cerebrum controls the hearing, language comprehension, storage and recall of memories • The LIMBIC system is deeply located in the temporal lobe. This controls the basic drives such as hunger, anger, emotion and sexual drive.
136. Slide 191: The Parietal lobe of the cerebrum • This is the principal center for the reception and interpretation of Sensation • This part interprets and integrates the sensory inputs like touch, temperature and pain • It interprets size, shape, distance and texture
137. Slide 192: The occipital lobe of the cerebrum • This functions mainly to interpret visual stimuli
138. Slide 193: Speech areas in the cerebrum • 1. Wernicke’s area- responsible for the sensory reception of speech. • 2.Broca’s Area- responsible for the motor speech
139. Slide 195: Fig. 8.28
140. Slide 196: The Cerebellum • The second largest brain region • Has also two hemispheres • Functions to maintain muscle tone, coordinate muscle movement, posture and control balance/equilibrium • If this is damaged, muscle tone decreases and fine motor movements become very clumsy
141. Slide 198: The Brainstem • Lies inferior to the cerebrum • Continuous with the cerebrum and the spinal cord • It is composed of the midbrain, the pons and the medulla oblongata • Functions: houses the center for respiration and cardiovascular system
142. Slide 199: The Midbrain • This connects with the cerebrum • Contains numerous ascending and descending tracts and fibers
143. Slide 200: The Pons • Connects the cerebellum with the cerebrum • Houses the respiratory center and cardiovascular center • Exit points for cranial nerves 5, 6 and 7
144. Slide 201: The Medulla oblongata • The most inferior portion of the brainstem • Serves as the center for autonomic reflexes to maintain homeostasis, regulating respiratory vasomotor and cardiac functions • Serves as exit of cranial nerves 9,10,11 and 12
145. Slide 202: The Diencephalon • The thalamus and the hypothalamus • The thalamus is the relay station of all sensory stimuli towards the brain • The hypothalamus controls body temperature, appetite, water balance, pituitary secretions and sleep-wake cycle
146. Slide 203: The Basal ganglia
147. Slide 204: Brain circulation: The circle of Willis
148. Slide 205: The spinal cord • A long cylindrical structure extending from the foramen magnum to the L1 in adult, L3/L4 in pedia
149. Slide 206: The spinal cord • In the cross section of the spinal cord, we find the GRAY matter- contains neurons; and WHITE matter-consists of nerve fibers • There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that exit the spinal cord
150. Slide 209: The spinal cord • Each spinal nerve is formed by the dorsal root (sensory) and the ventral root (motor) • Cervical segments= 8 pairs • Thoracic segments=12 pairs • Lumbar= 5 pairs • Sacral=5 pairs • Coccygeal=1 pair
151. Slide 210: The Meninges • These are 3 connective tissue layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord. • 1. DURA MATER- the superficial, thickest layer. The area above the dura mater is called epidural space • 2. ARACHNOID- second layer, thin and wispy. • 3. PIA MATER- the deepest layer, adhered to the brain and spinal cord substance
152. Slide 212: The Meninges • The space in between the arachnoid and pia mater is called the arachnoid space • This arachnoid space contains the cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) • In this space, blood vessels are also found
153. Slide 213: The Ventricles • These are CSF filled cavities in the brain • The lateral ventricle- found in the cerebrum • The third ventricle- in the center of the thalamus and hypothalamus • The fourth ventricle- located at the base of the cerebellum
154. Slide 214: The CSF • This is the fluid found inside the ventricles that bathe the brain and spinal cord • Function: provides protective cushion around the CNS • Produced by the choroid plexus in the ventricles • Absorbed by the arachnoid granulations
155. Slide 215: Tracing the CSF pathway Lateral ventricle Interventricular foramen of Monro Third ventricle Cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius Fourth ventricle Exits trough the median foramen of Magendie or the lateral foramen of Luscka Subarachnoid spaces in the cisterna magna, spinal cord subarachnoid space of the brain superior sagittal sinus
156. Slide 217: The cranial nerves • Are 12 pairs of nerves that exit the brain • Can be classified as – Sensory – Motor – Mixed (sensory and motor)
157. Slide 221: The Autonomic Nervous System • The part of the peripheral nervous system that innervates cardiac muscles, smooth muscles and glands Functionally divided into • Sympathetic Nervous System • Parasympathetic Nervous System
158. Slide 222: The SYMPATHETIC system • Originates from the T1-L2/L3 segments of the spinal cord (thoracolumbar) • Utilized by the body for FLIGHT and FIGHT response • Neurotransmitter agents are Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (coming from the adrenal gland) • ADRENERGIC system
159. Slide 223: Sympathetic responses • Increased: – HR – RR – BP – Visual Acuity (Pupillary Dilation) – Smooth Muscle tone sphincters are contracted – Vasoconstriction – Metabolism ↑ glucose, ↑ fatty acids
160. Slide 224: Sympathetic responses • Decreased – Peristalsis – Salivary secretions • Ejaculation
161. Slide 225: Parasympathetic system • CHOLINERGIC system • The vegetative system • Feed and Breed responses • Cranio-sacral location • Cranial nerves- 3, 7, 9, 10 and S2-S4 • Neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine
162. Slide 226: Parasympathetic responses • Increased – Gastric secretions – Salivary secretions – peristalsis • Pupillary constriction • Decreased • Smooth muscle tone sphincters are relaxed • erection
163. Slide 228: Nerve Physiology • The nerve cells are excitable cells • Any stimulus will change the membrane potential and cause an action potential to generate impulse transmission • The myelin sheath of the nerve cell is responsible for the SALTATORY conduction increases the nerve transmission
164. Slide 230: Fig. 8.11
165. Slide 231: Fig. 8.12
166. Slide 232: The SYNAPSE • This is the region where communication occurs between 2 neurons or between a neuron and a target cell • A neurotransmitter is released from the nerve cell towards the other cell with receptor
167. Slide 233: Fig. 8.13
168. Slide 236: The eye and the visual pathway • Vision is made possible by the stimulation of the photoreceptor cells in the retina • Receptor cells are the RODS and CONES • The eye is made up of three layers – Fibrous layer- sclerae and cornea – Uvea- choroid and iris and ciliary bodies – Nervous coat- retina
169. Slide 239: Fig. 9.13
170. Slide 240: The optic nerve • This is the collection of fibers from the cells in the retina • It passes through the brainstem as the optic chiasm • it wil